The reasons for changing patterns of marriage Essay Example for Free

The reasons for changing patterns of marriage Essay Examine the reasons for changing patterns of marriage and divorce over the last 50 years or so. Marriage is the legal relationship between two people in eyes of law. Over the last 50 years or so, the patterns of marriage and divorce have changed significantly and are still changing in today’s society. This is due to many factors such as less stigma, changes in women’s positions, secularization ,cohabitation and many more. Nowadays, there is less pressure to marry and a lot more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. It’s considered more important about the quality of a couples relationship, rather than the legal status. The main and most important reason for the decrease in marriage and increase in divorce was the change in attitudes towards them. People now believe that it is alright to get a divorce if they are not happy in their marriage and with that, the stigma towards divorces has decreased. People divorce now on a day to day basis. We see in magazine articles about celebrities getting divorce and no one is against it anymore, unlike before when older members of the family would encourage the younger couples stay together through thick and thin. Thats the same for marriage, as more and more people want to cohabit with their partner rather than get married as women now have more opportunities to work, higher expectations and set own rules about their life’s that before wasn’t possible. Secularisation is also involved in why there are changing patterns of marriage and divorced. Churches are in favour of marriage, and do not encourage divorce but as their influence declines, people feel freer to choose not to marry. People do not let the influence of the church or god take over their decisions. Society today has became secular, no place for god. Divorce has increased dramatically over the past 50 years. Now 1 in 2 marriages are likely to end in divorce. High divorce rates mean people are able to re-marry however, some churches do not accept remarriages. People are also now marrying later in life, as people stay longer in education and are likely to cohabit first. This is partly due to the legislation that was took into place in 1969 called The Divorce Reform Act. This Act made it easier for couples to get divorced and made it a lot cheaper for those who could not afford it in the past. The Government have also introduced the welfare provision which made it easier for w/c women to get divorced as this  law helped women financially with divorce and being a single parent. In addition, Alan and Crow agree with the idea that there have been changes in the position of women. Women are now better educated, which makes them less dependent on men financially, which therefore enables women have greater freedom not to marry, or to end a marriage. In support, feminists see divorce as desirable as it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family. However Functionalist writer Parsons states that he believes people getting divorced is everything that is wrong with society. He believes that marriage essential as there is a clear division of labour, That both the man and women should play their role in the family and not break it apart as it is essential for the smooth running of society. However Wilmot and Young argue that the roles have changed and men are now taking on greater share of domestic tasks and women are now working in the labour market. Although feminist Oakley totally disagrees with Wilmot and Young. Oakley dismissed the idea of the symmetrical family. She critics Wilmot and Young as they only asked one question in their research do you help with housework?. She believed this question was irrelevant to their research as it does not state how much the men actually do and the domestic division of labour had led to the increase in divorce as women do not want to carry out a dual burden role. In conclusion these reasons have all dramatically affected the increase in divorce and the decrease in marriage. However it must be acknowledged women are not rejecting marriage and that there has been an increase in remarriages so this means that women are now raising their expectations and not rejecting marriage.

Quality of Nursing and Diversity

Quality of Nursing and Diversity Critically discuss how an understanding and application of the concepts of diversity, cultural competence and equality can help to improve the quality of nursing care in today’s diverse healthcare settings for a diverse service-user population The Office of National Statistics (2014) displays how the population of Britain is becoming increasingly diverse due to migration, with 560,000 people migrating to Britain between March 2013 and March 2014; a significant increase from 492,000 people in the previous 12 months. Globalisation; which is the increasing integration of economies and societies has a profound effect on migration and health. For example the ease of accessibility of borders for services and trade removes the boundaries for migration and increases the production and marketing of products such as tobacco which have an adverse effect on health (Wamala and Kawachi 2007). The increasing movement of countries into the European Union (EU) also removes the boundaries to migration as the European commission state that individuals who hold European citizenship have rights to free movement and residency within the EU(EU 2014). The acceleration of globalisation and the growth in migration means the NHS have to care for an increasingly diverse service-user population who have a range of health needs which presents many issues and challenges for nursing care. Blakemore (2013) recognised how research by Macmillan cancer support found that patients from Black minority ethnic (BME) groups experience increased challenges and poor treatment compared to white British cancer patients; such as lack of compassion and poor and ineffective communication. This is an example of how diverse groups can receive poor quality care and highlights the need for nurses to understand and apply the concepts of diversity, cultural competence and equality to evade this diminished care. This essay will explore, discuss and critique these concepts when looking at how they can improve the quality of nursing care in today’s diverse healthcare settings for a diverse service-user population. Diversity is defined by Dayer-berenson (2014) as the ‘individual differences of the human race’ which should be ‘accepted, respected, embraced and celebrated by society’. The differences encompass many factors such age, religion, ethnicity and sexual orientation, all which shape an individual to be unique. This definition however fails to acknowledge that differences exist within each unique factor. For example in ethnic groups; where although common characteristics such as language and origin are shared, differences within the ethnic group still do exist such the extent to which the individual practices their religion, and the culture to which the individual identifies to (Henley and Schott 1999). The National Health Service (NHS)(2011) expand on this definition by recognising that diversity includes ‘visible and non-visible’ differences. Recognition of this is important in clinical practice as non –visible differences such as values and beliefs will not be established unless nurses effectively communicate and assess there patients values, needs and prefences. This will prevent the assumption that all members of one ethnicity act as another as mentioned previously, and therefore avoid stereotyping. Henley and Schott (1999) recognise how stereotyping will result in inadequate nursing care as people distance themselves from those they see as different, causing them to have a lack of consideration and respect for the individual, thus diminishing care. Furthermore, when assessing the values and beliefs of diverse patients, nurses must avoid holding an ethnocentric attitude. Ethnocentrism is when people identify their own cultural ways as superior to others, creating an attitude that any other beliefs and values are wrong. This leads to inadequate care as other diverse beliefs, values and therefore needs; will be rendered as insignificant and may be ignored (Royal college of Nursing (RCN) 2014). Ethnocentric behaviour however is not always recognised by the individual and is therefore difficult to challenge, as through socialisation into their own cultural values and beliefs a viewpoint of what is ‘normal’ and ‘appropriate’ is created. This viewpoint is then used to often negatively judge diverse cultures that the individual comes across (Henley and Schott 1999). On the other hand Sharif (2012) views ethnocentrism as having a positive influence on healthcare in the United Kingdom. When looking at BME groups, South Asians are a high risk group for public health diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Sharif recognises the need for ethnocentric interventions to educate South Asian communities and to distinguish them as a group to further investigate the differences in epidemiology, pathophysiology and health outcomes. This view is opposed by The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC)(2010) who state in their standards for pre-registration nurses that nurses must strive for culturally diverse nursing care by practicing as holistic, non-judgemental and sensitive nurses, avoiding assumption, recognising individual choice and acknowledging diversity. Therefore nurses must adhere to this code by avoiding stereotypical and ethnocentric attitudes which can be done through assessing and recognising patients as individuals. This will result in high quality care which is essential for a diverse service user population. Respecting individual patient diversity results in respecting equality which is the elimination of discrimination and disadvantage through respecting the rights of individuals and promoting equal opportunity for all. Nurses working within an organisation must comply to the Equality Act 2010 which protects 12 diverse characteristics such as age, disability and religon from discrimation and disadvantage (Equality and Human Rights Commison 2014). In healthcare this is done through the implementation of policies and guideance, however Talbot and Verrinder (2010) highlight how equality policies can express the need for patients to receive equal care regardless of characteristics and background. This ignores personal choice and therefore disregardards individuality and diversity; producing poor quality care. When looking at equality further nurses can promote equality through ensuring everyone has equal and full access to health care. It is recognised that BME patients have a poor uptake of healthcare services compared to white British patients for several reasons such as; language barriers, negative experiences and inadequate information (Henley and Schott 1999,Washington and Bowles et al 2008). Dayer-berenson (2014) however identifies that barriers to healthcare are not just due to racial factors but also socio-economic factors. Nimakok and Gunapala et al (2013) expand on this further by recognising that individuals from BME communities are more likely to be of poor socio-economic status than their white counterparts ; due to factors such as low income and poor housing quality. Nurses must therefore be in the position to promote equality through endorsing equal access to healthcare and complying to equality policies. This must be done whilist respecting individual patients and their di versity which produces culturally competenet nurses and thus high quality care for the diverse service user population. Cultural competence is defined by Papadopolus and Tilki et al. (2003) as the act of respecting the cultural differences of patients in order to provide effective and appropriate care. This is a brief definition which fails to include all aspects of being a culturally competent practicioner, which arguably involves more than respecting cultural differences which will later be explored (McClimens and Brewster et al. 2014). Leininger (1997) states that cultural competence is the goal of providing culturaly congruent, compent and compassionate care through holisticly looking at culture, health and illness patterns and respecting the similarities and differences in cultural values and beliefs.This definition fails to recognise that cultural competence Is never a completed goal but an ongoing process (Dean 2010), however it recognises the importance of looking at the similarties within cultures. This increases the nurses ability to understand and meet the patients full range of needs thus producing culturally competent care (Henley and Schott 1999). Cultural competent nursing care is essential for enusuring high quality care in the increasingly diverse service user population, with The NHS stating that it provides a comprenhesive service for all regardless of background and characteristcs and In consideration of each individuals human rights. Respect for equality and diversity are two important aspects of The NHS`s vison and values as highlighted in this statement; and through culturally competent care these values can be achieved (McClimens and Brewster et al. 2014, NHS 2014). Educating health care professionals on culturally competent care is therefore important with Hovat and Horey et al. (2014) looking at the effects of educational cultural competence interventions for healthcare proffesionals on healthcare outcomes. The review found that health behaviour such as concordance to treatment was improved however they also acknowledged that there quality of evidence was poor and that cultural competence is still a developing stratergy, therefore further research is needed to establish its effectiveness on healthcare outcomes. Dayer-Berenson (2014) however, states how culturally competent care does produce positive healthcare outcomes and therefore high quality care as through culturally competent practice, cultural sensitivity can be developed. This will bridge the gap between the healthcare professional and the patient which allows the patient to feel understood, respected and supported. There are various models which offer an understanding of cultural competence and a process for developing cultural competence to allow for high quality care. Campinha-Bacote developed the `The Process of Cultural Competence in the Delivery of Healthcare Services model’ in 1998 which looks at how the healthcare professional must work within the cultural context of the patient and ‘become’ culturally competent rather than ‘be’ culturally competent. Campinha-Bacote sees becoming culturally competent as an ongoing process which involves the constructs of cultural awareness, knowledge, skill, encounters and desire Campinha-Bacote (2002). When looking at cultural awareness; which is the process of the nurse exploring there own cultural and professional background and any bias towards other cultures, Dayer-Berenson (2014) agrees nurses need to be aware of there own culture so that they can step outside of it when necessary and care for patients only in terms of their needs. This will reduce misunderstandings and misjudgements and therefore failures in care, allowing for high quality care for the diverse service user population. On the other hand this model has some weaknesses. When looking at the construct of cultural skill which Campinha-Bacote (2002) defines as the collection of relevant cultural data through cultural assessment in regards to the patients presenting problem, Leishman (2004) identifies some issues. Her study on perspectives of cultural competence in healthcare found that nurses do not agree that the personal beliefs and values of patients should be impinged upon as Camphinha-Bacote suggests in her model. Leishmans study found that this may impact the patients overall impression on the care they receive and that individual patient needs irrespective of culture should be the focus of care. This view argues that patient centered care is favourable over cultural competence when caring for a diverse patient population . Patient centered care describes care which is centred around the individual and their needs with inclusion of families and carers in decisions about treatment and care (Manley and Hills et al. 2011). It is a philiosphy which is embedded at the forefront of all patient care, with a recent inquiry comminsed by the Royal College of General Practicioners (2014) emphasising the importance of patient centred care in the 21st century to meet the challenging and changing needs of patients; such as the increase in the diverse patient population. Kleinmans explanatory model of illness offers an alternative approach for looking at cultural competence as it supports the delivery of person centred care. The model contains steps that the healthcare professional can use to communicate with their patients. The steps look at several issues such as; establishment of the patients ethnic identity and what It means to them, how an episode of illness can effect the patient and their family, what the illness means to the patient, and how a cultural competent approach may help or hinder the patients care (NHS Flying Start 2014 , Kleinman and Benson 2006). By eliciting the patients and their families views and explanations of their illness the model allows for patient centred care. Also the cross cultural communication and recognition of any conflicts in values and beliefs which need negotiating produces culturally competent care (Hark and DeLisser 2009, Misra-Herbert 2003). The model has further strengths which also allow for high quality care as recognised by Kleinman and Benson (2006) who state that the model allows practicioners to set there knowledge alongside the patients own views and explanations which avoids an ethnocentric attitude. On the other hand the model is focused on the interaction between doctors and patients so it is therefore questionable as to wether this model can be applied to the nursing care of a diverse service user population (Misra-Hebert 2003). The acceleration of globalisation and therefore increase in migration means that the NHS have to care for an increasingly diverse service user population. To give high quality nursing care to their patients nurses must understand apply the concepts of diversity, equality and cultural competence. This essay has shown how this can be done by ensuring their practice is underpinned by legal and ethical principles and through respecting the diversity of all through treating patients as individuals and avoiding stereotypical and ethnocentric attitudes. Respecting diversity can also endorse equality which nurses can also encourage through promoting equal access to healthcare for all. Finally nurses must be culturally competenet practicioners by respecting diversity and equality and through the implication of models although further research is needed as cultural competence is a developing concept with other principles such as patient centered care also being seen as essential in nursing pra ctice. 2,180 1

AngloSaxon Language Essay -- essays papers

AngloSaxon Language Nearly all knowledge of the English language before the seventh century is hypothetical. Most of this knowledge is based on later English documents and earlier documents in related languages (3). The English language of today represents many centuries of development. As a continuous process, the development of the English language began in England around the year 449 with the arrival of several Germanic tribes including: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes (1, p.49). English, like all other languages, is subject to constant growth and decay (1). Many of the political and social events that have so profoundly affected the English people in their life have generally had an impact on their language (1). The evolution and developmental changes of Anglo-Saxon Language and Modern English have been characterized by three basic periods: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. Old English was spoken and written in England during the early part of the Middle Ages, from about 600-1100 (2). The language’s earliest stage of development was known as Old English (OE) (3). The four main varieties of the language that were taken to Britain were: Kentish which was associated with the Jutes; West Saxon, from the Southern region, Wessex; Mercian, an Anglian dialect which was spoken in Mercia; and Northumbrian, one of the northernmost Anglian dialects (3). The â€Å"vocabulary expanded chiefly through compounding and derivation,† but there were also a few changes in meaning that contributed to this growth (3, p473). The first written form of the language was runic letters which was replaced by a modified version of the Roman alphabet during the Anglo-Saxon conversion to Christianity (3). Very little of OE cou... ...atus of reasonable importance among the world (1). Although â€Å"the Germanic dialects that migrated in the 5th century to Britain have expanded into a 20th century global common language,† the position that the language will occupy in the future is still uncertain (3p472). Bibliography: Works Cited Baugh, A.C. & Cable, T. (1987). A History of the English Language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Lynch, J. (2002, January). History of the English Language. [Online]. Available Internet: dept.English.upenn.edu Directory: ~lynch/terms File: history McArthur, T. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. â€Å"Oxford English Dictionary.† (2002, January). History of the Dictionary. [Online]. Available Internet: www.oed.com Directory: public/inside File: history

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight :: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Lines 1372-1453 from The Norton Anthology of English Literature Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was written in the fourteenth century by an anonymous poet who was a contemporary of Geoffrey Chaucer. The story was originally written in a Northern dialect. It tells the story of Sir Gawain's first adventure as a knight. This section of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight pertains to the agreement between Bercilak de Hautdesert, the host, and Gawain. Bercilak is to go hunting in the morning, while Gawain sleeps. Upon the return of Bercilak from his hunting trip, he is to give to Gawain all that he has caught. In return, Gawain is to return all that he has won in his "hunt." They make this bargain three times, at the end of each day. The segment begins with Bercilak showing Gawain the fruits of his hunting trip. Gawain returns the fruits of his "hunt" by bestowing on Bercilak a kiss. The source of the kiss given to Gawain remains anonymous. However, Gawain is not aware that Bercilak knows exactly where and from whom Gawain has received his gift. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight consists of three hunts, three temptations, and three different animals. It is not by accident that the first day's hunt is for deer. The deer represents the innocence and purity of Gawain as a knight. The lengthy and detailed description of the hunt and the capture of the deer serve to emphasize the symbolism of the deer. The even more detailed description of the slaughter and butchering of the meat further emphasizes the symbolism. It can be inferred that the butchering of the deer is similar to the fate that awaits Gawain when he meets with the Green Knight. The next day's hunt is for a wild boar. The fierce animal is symbolic of Gawain's reactions to the increasing advances from Bercilak's wife. The boar is fierce and much more difficult to catch and kill, just as Gawain is steady in his resistance to temptation. Bercilak is aware that Gawain is resistant to all temptation at this point. Gawain is true to his reputation of a chivalrous, worthy knight. The third day's hunt is for the wily and cunning fox. This is symbolic of the clever way that Gawain resists temptation. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight :: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Lines 1372-1453 from The Norton Anthology of English Literature Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was written in the fourteenth century by an anonymous poet who was a contemporary of Geoffrey Chaucer. The story was originally written in a Northern dialect. It tells the story of Sir Gawain's first adventure as a knight. This section of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight pertains to the agreement between Bercilak de Hautdesert, the host, and Gawain. Bercilak is to go hunting in the morning, while Gawain sleeps. Upon the return of Bercilak from his hunting trip, he is to give to Gawain all that he has caught. In return, Gawain is to return all that he has won in his "hunt." They make this bargain three times, at the end of each day. The segment begins with Bercilak showing Gawain the fruits of his hunting trip. Gawain returns the fruits of his "hunt" by bestowing on Bercilak a kiss. The source of the kiss given to Gawain remains anonymous. However, Gawain is not aware that Bercilak knows exactly where and from whom Gawain has received his gift. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight consists of three hunts, three temptations, and three different animals. It is not by accident that the first day's hunt is for deer. The deer represents the innocence and purity of Gawain as a knight. The lengthy and detailed description of the hunt and the capture of the deer serve to emphasize the symbolism of the deer. The even more detailed description of the slaughter and butchering of the meat further emphasizes the symbolism. It can be inferred that the butchering of the deer is similar to the fate that awaits Gawain when he meets with the Green Knight. The next day's hunt is for a wild boar. The fierce animal is symbolic of Gawain's reactions to the increasing advances from Bercilak's wife. The boar is fierce and much more difficult to catch and kill, just as Gawain is steady in his resistance to temptation. Bercilak is aware that Gawain is resistant to all temptation at this point. Gawain is true to his reputation of a chivalrous, worthy knight. The third day's hunt is for the wily and cunning fox. This is symbolic of the clever way that Gawain resists temptation.

He Says, She Says: A Synthesis Essay -- Essays Papers

He Says, She Says: A Synthesis Communication between men and women is a constant comparison of differing and many times opposite forms of reasoning. But should these differences hinder our ability to communicate with the opposite sex? There are many differing opinions concerning this topic. While trying to understand our differences we have lost site of the fact that somewhere in our conflicting thought patterns and methods of communication is the challenge and intrigue that attracts us to the opposite sex. Rather than seeing our communication diversities as obstacles we should consider them challenges that draw and keep our attention. You do not need to be an expert on human behavior to appreciate gender classified language and its effects on male female relationships, however many experts have attempted to tackle the issue. Deborah Tannen is the author of several books concerning inter-gender relations and addresses the issue of differing reasoning resulting in misunderstanding. Tannen describes differences between male and female communication skills as a series of predetermined thought patterns. She states that men and women simply have a different way of going about communication. She believes that different ways of communicating stem from differing desired results of the conversation at hand. A married couple was in a car when the wife turned to her husband and asked, â€Å"Would you like to stop for a coffee?† â€Å"No, thanks,† he answered truthfully. So they didn’t stop. The result? The wife, who had indeed wanted to stop, became annoyed because she felt her preference had not been considered. The husband, seeing his wife was angry, became frustrate. Why didn’t she just say what she wanted? (Tannen p... ... the office. These anecdotes are entirely anti-female based and sound more like what a paranoid feminist might think than what actually goes through the minds of men and women alike in the workplace. However Josefowitz accurately portrays the inevitable presence of separation of thought patterns between men and women. As much as the problems associated with inter-gender communications are a result of differing ways of expression, so are they results of differing ways of comprehension. So before we point a finger at the opposite sex we must first examine our own. Think not of our communicative troubles as deterrents, but rather as attractions and representations of our exceptional differences. Works Cited - Tannen, Deborah. â€Å"Can’t we Talk?† A Meeting of Minds. - Turner, Robin. â€Å"Male Logic and Woman’s Intuition†. A Meeting of Minds.

PlayStation Marketing Mix & Environment & Target Essay

The PlayStation brand is a series of video game consoles created and developed by Sony Computer Entertainment. PlayStation was the idea of Ken Kutaragi, who known as â€Å"The father of the PlayStation†, a Sony executive who had just come out of his hardware engineering division at that time. The console’s origins date back to 1986 where it was originally a joint project between Nintendo and Sony to create a CD-ROM for the Super Nintendo. The PlayStation made its debut at the Consumer Electronics Show in June 1991 when Sony revealed its console, a Super Famicom/SNES with a built-in CD-ROM drive. However, a day after the announcement, Nintendo announced that it would be breaking its partnership with Sony. The deal was broken by Nintendo after they were unable to come to an agreement on how revenue would be split between the two companies. The breaking of the partnership infuriated Sony President Norio Ohga, who responded by appointing Kutaragi with the responsibility of developing of the PlayStation project to rival Nintendo. The original PlayStation released in December 1994 was the first of the ubiquitous PlayStation series of console and hand-held game devices. Target Market They targeted at fans of video games and teenager or audience starting at 17+ and the focus is more on the male. Of course the games themselves have limits on who can play them, depending on the â€Å"content rating† on the game’s cover. Sony developed the PlayStation with the intention of hitting a wider, especially the older generation of gaming enthusiasts. Marketing Mix * Product: â€Å"A successful marketing efforts result in product that become a part of everyday life†, and that what Sony reached by offers games of all genres to match customers gaming preference. With its product PlayStation they have succeeded in satisfying the customers’ wishes by developing it among the time as requirements of the customers and their needs. * Distribution Decisions with respect to distribution focus on making the product available in adequate quantities at places where customers are normally expected to shop for them to satisfy their needs. Selecting the appropriate retailers or wholesalers is an important thing. PlayStation covered the market. It’s distributes it in various channels, customer buy it from the retailers recognized by Sony, and these retailers buy the products directly from the company itself. * Promotion Promotion is a key element of marketing program and is concerned with effectively and efficiently communicating the decisions of marketing strategy. A company’s promotional efforts are the only controllable means to create awareness among publics about itself, the products and services it offers, their features and influence their attitudes favorably. Advertising campaign carried out by Sony to promote their product for PlayStation was big, they published video clips on the Internet, and they have advertisements in television screens, newspapers and magazines all over the world and other promotional media are very important in term of creation awareness about it. Some of the phrases in the ads are: â€Å"Live In Your World. Play In Ours.† â€Å"Wherever, Whenever, Forever.† The most notable of recent PlayStation commercials is the series of â€Å"It Only Does Everything†, these commercials garnered popularity among gamers. * Price Pricing decisions are almost always made in consultation with marketing management. Customers directly relate price to quality. PlayStation is with price range from moderately-high. Here in Saudi Arabia its price varies from SR 1300 to 1700 first raises the market, and then begins gradually decrease its. Marketing Environment * Competitive Biggest competitors to PlayStation are Wii of Nintendo and Xbox from Microsoft. The competition among them is very strong, PlayStation sales dropped against Wii at the beginning of 2008, and one of the reasons is its low price. *Numbers in thousands * Technological The current penetration of Internet creates the stimulus for the increase use of Internet as information. The introductions of new technologies have changed the nature of customer’s expectations, creating new zones of tolerance. Today, customers expect more flexibility, speed and dependability from retailers, than before the introduction of web-based technologies. * Sociocultural The price has become the key determinant of purchase choice. Various consumers are always looking for the best price opportunities. Also, research shows the large number of UK consumers’ choice of product strongly depends on the appeal of product mix and its congruence with their self-concept.

Why do we need to focus on the concept of secularism if we want to understand the role of religion in contemporary affairs?

Introduction Globalization in the 21st century has resulted in greater diversity of peoples and religious pluralism across the globe. Alongside a global resurgence in religion, this trend has engendered new patterns of interaction and shifting perceptions in the modern political and public sphere (Thomas, 2005; Hurd, 2008). This scenario poses a direct challenge to the modern political system internationally as it upholds secular politics as the universal foundation for international relations favoured for the stability and peace it engenders. Concern regarding the potential for social conflict and violence has heightened since the events of September 11, 2001 as well as the present tensions among secularist Western nations and religious states of Turkey and Iran. These challenges give the problem of religious pluralism much of its urgency (Thomas, 2005). Secularism refers to a movement that seeks for rejection, indifference, or exclusion of religion and religious considerations in contemporary a ffairs. In political terms it refers to the belief that religion should not play a role in government, education, or other parts of society in the quest towards the separation of and/or reduction of ties between religion and government (often referred to as the church and the state) (Taylor, 2010). This is deemed necessary to enable the protection of the rights of religious minorities among other positions in a pluralist society, and therefore to enhance democracy (Taylor, 2005). Given its success in Western democracies ending the sectarian violence in Europe and enabling the peaceful stable co-existence of various communities in the United States (Hurd, 2008), the concept is however viewed with disdain and suspicion in non-Western states and cultures especially those with predominant Muslim beliefs. This sentiment derives from the system’s assumption of moral high ground leading to its belittling of other cultures and alternative approaches; contempt for religion in public l ife; and the legitimizing of regressions of negotiations with regard to alternative approaches (Taylor, 1998). This paper explores the need to focus on the concept of secularism in order to understand the role of religion in contemporary affairs. The endeavour of this exploration is to find a solution to challenges in the dominance of secularism in the modern public and political sphere which engenders resistance and and portends violent conflict. Secularism’s meanings, history and transformations, its dominant varieties, as well as its strengths and limitations are focused upon in following sections. History of secularism Secularism is a political tradition which has continued to evolve over eight centuries sharing important relationships with religious traditions such as Judeo-Christianity with which it sustains complex ties, and Islam, its primary alter-ego with which it maintains a long-standing relationship (Philpott, 2000). The ‘secular’ notion has through time taken on a range of meanings with the earliest reference, saeculum, traced to the 13th century referring to a dualistic opposition within Christianity. Often with negative connotations, this term was used to distinguish ‘worldly’ clergy from those living in seclusion in monasteries (Taylor, 2010). The term gradually shed off its ‘Godless’ and profane connotation by the 16th century acquiring a new description of a transforming world. To secularize in the latter instance referred to the conversion from religious/priestly to civil possession or use. This process is described by Casanova (1994; 24) as th e ‘passage, transfer, or relocation of persons, things, function, meanings, and so forth, from their traditional locations in the religious sphere to secular spheres.’ Onwards from the 19th century, further transformation led secularism to assume its present recognition in current language which describes a movement†¦ ‘expressly intended to provide a certain theory of life and conduct without reference to a deity or a future life’ (Hurd, 2008). Secularists, therefore, refers to those of the belief that the church (the religious) and the worldly are in a continued historical contest, in which the world is gaining an upper hand irreversibly. Two characteristics of secularism are revealed in its relevance to international relations and the political sphere. Secularization’s earlier reference to the ‘acquisition or possession’ of land (church properties) and people, usually by state actors, entailed massive appropriation and expropriati on and often instigated religious wars (Asad, 2003). Despite secularization’s contemporary reference to the separation of the church and the state predominant in Western circles, its meaning and connotation in the above context (now overshadowed), is still retained in many non-Western contexts (Taylor, 1998). For instance, with particular regard to the Middle East, the principle of secularism has served to legitimize the suppression of local practices and political establishments. This has contributed to the hegemonic attempt to transform or to ‘take possession’ of the region in pursuit of contemporary Western ideals (Hurd, 2008). In the second instance, an important characteristic derived is secularism’s presumption to clearly distinguish between transcendental and temporal matters. In its definition of what is considered ordinary, or mundane, it by default assigns a place for religion with the secular notion only making sense relative to its religious co unterpart (Hurd, 2004). As Asad (2003; 192) argues, secularism defines itself as the foundation upon which the ‘religious’ is fashioned; the point at which dialogue on theology is hatched in the discourse of modernity. It thus assumes itself to be above the fray holding alternative approaches particularly those associated with religion in condescension and as threatening. These characteristics present distinct sets of problems: first, is its potential to jeopardize democratic politics given that groups or individuals dissenting to the secular approach are considered threatening to stability and are shut out of public deliberations. Secularists, for example, generally shun non-theistic public philosophies and are notably extremely wary of political Islam (Davie, 2003). This is the reason, for instance, politics of Turkey and Pakistan in support of a civic role for Islam and which involve non-secular and non-Western platforms and partiesare frowned upon and are worrisome to Western secularist ideals. They threaten the boundaries that secularists impose between the sacred and the secular (Banchoff, 2007). Dislike and disapproval consequent to this makes Western powers, regardless of their actual policies, to be perceived as backing the repression of Islamist parties which increases the potential for terrorism (Hurd, 2008; Bruce, 2003). Contrary to secularism’s self-representation, it has sometimes been associated with the unjust, domineering and violent yet within the movement, there is a predilection to associate religion with these negative traits in the public sphere (Taylor, 1998; Hurd, 2008). Secularism’s automatic linkage with democracy and public order is thus questionable. An indiscriminate secularism in an increasingly interdependent, pluralist and globalized world in which individuals and groups derive morality from different sources is prone to risks. These risks include potential uprisings from adherents and supporters of al ternative non-secular/non-Western approaches shut out from negotiations between religion and politics and in pursuit of public order (Banchoff, 2007; Davie, et al, 2003). Given secularism’s dominance in successful Western democracies, there is also a risk of blindness to its limitations. The following section describes two varieties of secularism and explores their implications for international politics and affairs in the public sphere which have been shown to be significant (Hurd, 2008). Laicism and international relations Laicism refers to the belief in the need to exclude religion from the public realm of politics and confining it to a space where it cannot threaten the liberties of â€Å"free thinking† citizens and political stability (Taylor, 1998). This belief forms the essence of present-day political thought. Through a complex and contested process, this approach attempts to limit and to regulate ‘religious’ disputes thus provide an authoritative and self-reliant public space (Philpott, 2000). The consequent separation of the church and state was intended to serve as a basis for provide the basis for cohesive politics and efficiency in the face of diversity and religious pluralism. Laicism relegates religion and associated beliefs to ‘things’ to be studied or an inferior culture conflicting with the ideals of modern living, politics and development (Hurd, 2008). Consequently, secularism has been described by some as having a strain of dogmatism given its propensi ty to validate a single authoritative basis of public ethics and reason (Taylor, 1998). The policing and constant delineation of this boundary poses challenges especially when society diversifies to contain substantial numbers of adherents of non-Judeo-Christian religions often suspicious of such endeavours (Hurd, 2008; Casanova, 1994). There are therefore calls for a more vibrant pluralist approach in the public sphere. Judeo-Christian secularism and international relations Through its acknowledgement of a place for religion in politics, this approach avoids the pitfalls that befall laicism. In its ‘common ground strategy,’ codes of political order and peaceful co-existence are agreed upon by members of a political community based on common doctrines (Taylor, 2010). However, these common set of values has its roots in Christianity which is a significant feature defining Western civilization (Philpott, 2000). It should be noted that many other religions around the world have complicated patterns of church-state relations as Christianity (Hurd, 2004). The challenge for global relations in this regard, is that secularism, however defined, ends at the boundaries of Western civilization which portends a fault line between the West and non-West ‘common grounds’ (Davie, et al, 2003; Thomas, 2005; Myers and Brodeur, 2006). Such a common ground exclusively dependent upon Western religious traditions is thus ill equipped to meet the dema nds of contemporary societies in and outside the West. In this regard, the common ground therefore becomes a representation of one among many parties or interests (Davie, 2003; Davie, et al, 2003; Philpott, 2000). With these limitations of the dual approaches of secularism, it is necessary in the interest of foregoing international relations and contemporary affairs to rethink the secular social reality. There might be need to approach secularism as among possible solutions to modern challenges associated with religion and public order. The secularization paradigm has served well as a model for the accommodation of religious pluralism and diversity in the public sphere, guiding decision-making in various contexts (Banchoff, 2007; Taylor, 2005). Yet consensus on secular public order is not universally shared and is sometimes viewed unkindly, with contempt, or out rightly rejected by those dominated and/or excluded as â€Å"religious†; those who disagree with the transcendental /temporal divide; and those who feel that their politics, culture and territory has been ‘taken over’ or is challenged through secularist justifications. Also included are those who feel closed out of public debate and discourse (Haynes, 1998; Casanova, 1994; Bruce, 2003). Secularism belittles non-Western alternatives in the negotiation of religion and politics, expressing contempt for religion in public life, particularly with regard to Islam, and legitimizes repression of negotiations of such alternative approaches. Through its insistence of neutrality and identification with rationality, freedom and the democratic, secularism engenders what is described by Honig (Hurd, 2008; Casanova, 1994) as resistances and remainders. The latter constitute those within secularism who seek to upset conventional assumptions about morality, rationality and good. Secularism strives to silence these by shifting them onto the category of the religious in clearly dangerous tendencies wit h potential to incite violence and counter-reactions (Hurd, 2008). At present, secularism lays claim to the right to define the role of religion in politics and in so doing closes off important debates regarding possible alternative moral bases and public order. This, in turn, makes secularists to be perceived as seeking to privatize and to define the political domain (Banchoff, 2007; Bruce, 2003). This engenders hostile responses and criticisms against its hegemonic objectives and aspirations from among the excluded with some resorting to extreme tactics to air their grievances (Banchoff, 2007; Haynes, 1998). Such eventualities are not solely attributable to extremist religious belief as commonly perceived (Thomas, 2005), but as shown can be in response to secularism’s fervent attempts towards the universalization of secular modernity through its specific model. In both its varieties, secularism occasionally acts as a belief intolerant of other beliefs, exhibiting a tendency to restrict political space (Taylor, 1998; Myers and Brodeur, 2006). It is widely agreed that secularism, including its clearly anti-religious variants, needs to be re-evaluated as a model for the organization of public life through the exploration of its implications for contemporary affairs. This is particularly needful with regard to states outside of historical Christendom and settler colonies upon which secularism is foisted upon (Davie, et al, 2003; Thomas, 2005; Hurd, 2008). It seems that secularism operates blindly with regard to its unforeseen implications and the consequences of its tendencies to pursue the universalization of its mores. Its zealous struggle against religious intolerance blinds it to its own inadequacies while it claims moral superiority and displaces violent and antidemocratic tendencies to the domain of ‘religion’ and religious fervour or unrestrained commitment (Taylor, 2005; Hurd, 2004). Though secularism purports to be external in the te rritorial contest between religion and politics, it is not as its history and nature locates it within the spectrum of theological politics (Philpott, 2000). Religion is an ingrained marker of collective identity and entails the submersion of ultimate meaning in people’s beliefs and practices, including social and institutional practices (Banchoff, 2007). There are social and political challenges posed by emergent religious pluralism inherent in the interaction among religious groups in society and politics. A clash of religious communities in the political arena may cause core pillars of democracy to falter: minority rights and majority rule (Banchoff, 2007; Bruce, 2003). Religious tensions may undermine effective government by the majority and, as well, dominant traditions may seek to constrain minority groups. However, a multiplicity of faith traditions presents not just challenges for governance and social cohesion but also opportunities for a more vibrant political cultu re and civil society. For instance, rising faith communities (especially Islam) are engaging democratic processes wherever they reside in the world, and secular majorities and established religious groups are also accommodative (not just resistant) to the new dynamic cultural and political landscape (Haynes, 1998). In foregoing discourse, this paper does not propose the reversal of secularism or the reinstatement of religion in the public sphere. In its stead, the secular ideas of democratic politics should be broadened to acknowledge positive contributions of other approaches such as the non-secular and the non-Western to pubic life and religion. There must be developed a space for continuous discourse among religious traditions, as well as among the religious and the secular so as to transcend the volatile limitations of the secularist approaches. This would also enable the incorporation of a non-hegemonic place for religion in politics addressing the conflicting legacy of secular ization in public sphere in the West and outside it. If this is not addressed, those excluded may eventually haunt and destabilize the same closures that bring about their exclusion. It is therefore imperative for the international community to consider the support of pluralistic democracy which inevitably might entail support for religious parties rather than propping up secularist political solutions. Minority voices in the new dispensation need to be heard. Remedy through the reconsideration of procedure is deemed insufficient given secularism’s prior assumption of itself as above the fray; marking its domain and associating itself with rational argument, tolerance, justice, common sense, public interest, and public authority (Davie, et al, 2003; Thomas, 2005). It thus derides religion as that which is not. Most secularists refuse to acknowledge the possible functioning of alternative non-secular and yet democratic models of order in the public sphere which could be legiti mate rivals to its dominance (Banchoff, 2007; Davie, et al, 2003; Taylor, 2005). Conclusion Focus on the concept of secularism affords us the opportunity to observe that the current foundation of international politics is far from being neutral or universal given its religious heritages and character to which it seems oblivious. Secularism’s self-confidence in its objectivity and neutrality which then drives its hegemonic aspirations may therefore be a threat to the preservation of global peace and security. It is thus argued that for value pluralism to hold, relations in contemporary affairs including the international public sphere (international relations) must distance themselves from secularist history and especially its connotations and negative perceptions. The secular foundation of modernity, particularly secularism’s assumptions concerning the inevitability of secularization, must be reconsidered and better relations among states and religions fostered in order to strengthen political interdependence and international freedom, as well as to forestall conflicts from conflicting values. The majorities must respect religious freedom but must also grapple with varied traditions such as Islam which incorporate different views of social obligation and personal responsibility – some which are at odds with dominant secular views. Therefore, the secular foundation must be exchanged with a post-secular project in which secularism and religion are considered on equal footing. References Asad, T. 2003. Formations of the Secular, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press Banchoff, T. (ed.) 2007. Democracy and the New Religious Pluralism, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bruce, S. 2003. Politics and Religion, Cambridge: Polity Casanova, J. 1994. Public Religions in the Modern World, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press Davie, G. 2003. ‘The Evolution of the Sociology of Religion’ In: Michele Dillon (ed.), Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 61-84. 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