Human expression

The need for human beings to connect and to communicate seems innate; if they were not, mankind would not seek out others with whom to forge bonds.   One of the basic forms of human association is via communication, and the ways in which humans have learned to communicate are as varied as the individuals involved.   A quick glance into any history book will reveal that during the early periods of humankind’s existence, while people struggled to keep themselves clothed and fed, they took time to create works of art—be it on the walls of caves or via carved figures.   As modernized as our society has become, art remains an integral part of the means by which humans communicate and relate to one another.Alfred Jensen’s series The Number Paintings (2006) â€Å"looks at how the artist used Pythagorean theory, the Mayan Calendar, and other numerical systems as well as Goethe’s color theory in his work,† but this description of the exhibit is devoid of the complexity that is present within Jensen’s pieces and the ways in which they may touch a viewer (Joy, 2006, Alfred).The painting Demonstration VIII (1961) was my favorite piece from The Number Paintings (2006), but my attachment had little to do with math or Mayans, and while I admit that part of my being drawn to this piece was due to its colors, this had far more to do with personal preference than with Goethe.   I made a connection to this piece because it reminded me of some of my favorite childhood things: pie and crayons.   Admittedly, this reaction is less-than sophisticated; however, the fact that I made these initial connections with Jensen’s piece caused me to spend a good deal of time examining it, and once drawn to the piece, the numerical sequences and their meanings fascinated me.While Jensen may have set out to create an artistic commentary on â€Å"clockwork,† â€Å"circumference,† and â€Å"diameter,† this would have bee n meaningless to me had I not been drawn to the pie shape and the colors of the piece.   It seems then, that one element of the way in which people manage to communicate (i.e. to express themselves and to be understood) is through similarities in taste: in this case, the primary factors were shape and color.Elizabeth Murray’s series Paintings 2003-2006 (2006), â€Å"are vibrant abstractions, sometimes of figures and everyday objects, combined to create visual metaphors of the world around us† (Joy, 2006, Elizabeth).   This statement was easier for me to attach myself to than was the statement regarding Jensen’s exhibit.   The description regarding Murray’s show gave me permission to enjoy what I saw while gently seeking a connection between each piece and the way I view the world.   I found myself particularly fascinated with Muddy Waters 8:05 A.M., because of the green and yellow hands I perceived in the piece.   The more I looked, the more wha t I saw reminded me of Sylvia Plath’s poem, â€Å"Metaphors.†Ã‚   Plath’s piece is often referred to as a riddle to which the â€Å"answer† is that she is describing her pregnancy (Comley, et al, 2004).   As I continued to view Murray’s piece, I could not help but see the image of a pregnant woman—whom I imagined to be single—as she struggled against the current of society.Given the title of the piece, I presume that I have mistaken what Murray created; however, what I did see certainly fits with the description of what her work is supposed to convey.   Based on the artwork of Murray, it seems as if another means by which understanding and expression are accomplished are via works that spark the imagination.Jerome Robbins’ ballet Fancy Free is set â€Å"in New York City on a hot summer night,† and involves â€Å"three sailors on shore leave [who] pick up two girls [when] a fight develops over which sailor is to be l eft without a partner†; however, without experiencing the dance and music of the ballet, it simply cannot be fully appreciated (Notes).   While the comedy of the story-line was entertaining, the magnificent dancing was the reason this piece was memorable.Through their jumps and twists and turns, I was drawn into the competition as if I were part of it.   As each sailor took his turn, I urged him on while holding my breath that his performance would stand up to those of his competitors.   Having real people acting out a series of events in a live performance is clearly a powerful form of communicating.   A solid performance brings the actors and the audience together in a way that few other experiences can, and when the show is successful, the participants have expressed themselves and the audience has understood them.When I was younger, my best friend and I used to make up all kinds of things to do.   Sometimes we’d pretend we were from a foreign country and m ake up accents all afternoon.   Other times, we’d pretend we were grown ups and act out the lives we imagined for ourselves.   One of the funniest things we ever did was to spend an entire afternoon communicating without talking or writing.   The rules were simple: anything one of us wanted to say had to be conveyed through the use of gestures and expressions.   As you might imagine, it was far more difficult to â€Å"talk† than we thought it would be, and while it was fun, it was extremely challenging.   The truth is, we spent more time laughing over not being able to understand one another than we did â€Å"communicating.†Things became especially silly when I realized I had to go to the bathroom.   While it might seem that I could simply get up and go, this would have been rude: no one leaves a room without telling the person he or she is with where he or she is going, and because we took our games seriously, it was up to me to communicate to my be st friend that I needed to go use the restroom.   Initially, I approached it like a game of charades.I figured it would be easy to act out the word â€Å"rest,† and once I’d gotten that far, I could simply point to our surroundings to get the word â€Å"room† out.   Keep in mind that while I was trying to act out the words, I had to GO.   I suppose that I was squirming a bit, and perhaps my clues were not as well planned as I originally believed—after about three minutes, when I was still working at â€Å"communicating,† I became desperate.   I did the little kid thing: I crossed my legs together and pointed in the direction of the bathroom.   Something in that last attempt worked, and my best friend understood me.   I rushed off to relieve myself to the sound of laughter.The means by which people communicate are as varied as the participants.   Whether viewing a work of art, attending a ballet, or playing games with friends, communic ating is all about making certain that one’s expressions are understood by one’s audience. ReferencesComley, N. R., Hamilton, D., Klaus, C. H., Scholes, R., & Sommers, N.   Introduction.   Sylvia Plath.   Metaphors.   (2004).   Fields of reading: Motives for writing.   (6th ed.).   Boston: Bedford, 2004.   p. 377.Jensen, A. (1961).   Demonstration VIII.   The Number Paintings.   Pace Wildenstein Gallery.   Retrieved December 1, 2006,   (2006).   The Number Paintings.   Pace Wildenstein Gallery.   Retrieved December 1, 2006, fromJoy, J. B.   (2006).   Alfred Jensen: The Number Paintings.   The Number Paintings.   Pace Wildenstein Gallery.   Retrieved December 1, 2006,(2006).   Elizabeth Murray: Paintings 2003-2006: The Number Paintings.   Elizabeth Murray: Paintings 2003-2006.   Pace Wildenstein Gallery.   Retrieved December 1, 2006,Murray, E.   (2003-2004).   Muddy Waters 8:05 A.M.   Elizabeth Murray: Paintings 20 03-2006.   Pace Wildenstein Gallery.   Retrieved December 1, 2006, fromMurray, E.   (2006).   Elizabeth Murray: Paintings 2003-2006.   Pace Wildenstein Gallery.   Retrieved December 1, 2006, fromNotes on Fancy Free.   Robbins, J.   (Choreographer).   (1944).   Fancy Free.   [Ballet].   American Ballet Theatre.   Retrieved December 3,The need for human beings to connect and to communicate seems innate; if they were not, mankind would not seek out others with whom to forge bonds.   One of the basic forms of human association is via communication, and the ways in which humans have learned to communicate are as varied as the individuals involved.   A quick glance into any history book will reveal that during the early periods of humankind’s existence, while people struggled to keep themselves clothed and fed, they took time to create works of art—be it on the walls of caves or via carved figures.   As modernized as our society has become, ar t remains an integral part of the means by which humans communicate and relate to one another.Alfred Jensen’s series The Number Paintings (2006) â€Å"looks at how the artist used Pythagorean theory, the Mayan Calendar, and other numerical systems as well as Goethe’s color theory in his work,† but this description of the exhibit is devoid of the complexity that is present within Jensen’s pieces and the ways in which they may touch a viewer (Joy, 2006, Alfred).The painting Demonstration VIII (1961) was my favorite piece from The Number Paintings (2006), but my attachment had little to do with math or Mayans, and while I admit that part of my being drawn to this piece was due to its colors, this had far more to do with personal preference than with Goethe.   I made a connection to this piece because it reminded me of some of my favorite childhood things: pie and crayons.   Admittedly, this reaction is less-than sophisticated; however, the fact that I ma de these initial connections with Jensen’s piece caused me to spend a good deal of time examining it, and once drawn to the piece, the numerical sequences and their meanings fascinated me.While Jensen may have set out to create an artistic commentary on â€Å"clockwork,† â€Å"circumference,† and â€Å"diameter,† this would have been meaningless to me had I not been drawn to the pie shape and the colors of the piece.   It seems then, that one element of the way in which people manage to communicate (i.e. to express themselves and to be understood) is through similarities in taste: in this case, the primary factors were shape and color.Elizabeth Murray’s series Paintings 2003-2006 (2006), â€Å"are vibrant abstractions, sometimes of figures and everyday objects, combined to create visual metaphors of the world around us† (Joy, 2006, Elizabeth).   This statement was easier for me to attach myself to than was the statement regarding Jensenà ¢â‚¬â„¢s exhibit.   The description regarding Murray’s show gave me permission to enjoy what I saw while gently seeking a connection between each piece and the way I view the world.I found myself particularly fascinated with Muddy Waters 8:05 A.M., because of the green and yellow hands I perceived in the piece.   The more I looked, the more what I saw reminded me of Sylvia Plath’s poem, â€Å"Metaphors.†Ã‚   Plath’s piece is often referred to as a riddle to which the â€Å"answer† is that she is describing her pregnancy (Comley, et al, 2004).   As I continued to view Murray’s piece, I could not help but see the image of a pregnant woman—whom I imagined to be single—as she struggled against the current of society.Given the title of the piece, I presume that I have mistaken what Murray created; however, what I did see certainly fits with the description of what her work is supposed to convey.   Based on the artwork of Mur ray, it seems as if another means by which understanding and expression are accomplished are via works that spark the imagination.Jerome Robbins’ ballet Fancy Free is set â€Å"in New York City on a hot summer night,† and involves â€Å"three sailors on shore leave [who] pick up two girls [when] a fight develops over which sailor is to be left without a partner†; however, without experiencing the dance and music of the ballet, it simply cannot be fully appreciated (Notes).   While the comedy of the story-line was entertaining, the magnificent dancing was the reason this piece was memorable.Through their jumps and twists and turns, I was drawn into the competition as if I were part of it.   As each sailor took his turn, I urged him on while holding my breath that his performance would stand up to those of his competitors.   Having real people acting out a series of events in a live performance is clearly a powerful form of communicating.   A solid perform ance brings the actors and the audience together in a way that few other experiences can, and when the show is successful, the participants have expressed themselves and the audience has understood them.When I was younger, my best friend and I used to make up all kinds of things to do.   Sometimes we’d pretend we were from a foreign country and make up accents all afternoon.   Other times, we’d pretend we were grown ups and act out the lives we imagined for ourselves.   One of the funniest things we ever did was to spend an entire afternoon communicating without talking or writing.   The rules were simple: anything one of us wanted to say had to be conveyed through the use of gestures and expressions.   As you might imagine, it was far more difficult to â€Å"talk† than we thought it would be, and while it was fun, it was extremely challenging.   The truth is, we spent more time laughing over not being able to understand one another than we did †Å"communicating.†Things became especially silly when I realized I had to go to the bathroom.   While it might seem that I could simply get up and go, this would have been rude: no one leaves a room without telling the person he or she is with where he or she is going, and because we took our games seriously, it was up to me to communicate to my best friend that I needed to go use the restroom.   Initially, I approached it like a game of charades.I figured it would be easy to act out the word â€Å"rest,† and once I’d gotten that far, I could simply point to our surroundings to get the word â€Å"room† out.   Keep in mind that while I was trying to act out the words, I had to GO.   I suppose that I was squirming a bit, and perhaps my clues were not as well planned as I originally believed—after about three minutes, when I was still working at â€Å"communicating,† I became desperate.   I did the little kid thing: I crossed my legs to gether and pointed in the direction of the bathroom.   Something in that last attempt worked, and my best friend understood me.   I rushed off to relieve myself to the sound of laughter.The means by which people communicate are as varied as the participants.   Whether viewing a work of art, attending a ballet, or playing games with friends, communicating is all about making certain that one’s expressions are understood by one’s audience.

Hilton Hotels Corporation Marketing Analysis Essay

The marketing issues addressed here are focused on how to draw more consumers from other gambling casinos, and how to make Hilton a resort destination. Two-thirds of Hilton’s total operating earnings in the early 1990’s were derived from the four casinos they owned in Las Vegas, Nevada. Expanding on this idea will ensure the hotel chain firmly plants its feet in the entertainment and resort business (Hilton Case Study). By investing massive amounts of revenue into developing their gaming division, the Hilton will become a destination resort that would encompass of all the guest’s needs to keep them interested staying within the confines of the resort. Some considerations include how Hilton would get its market share of the billions of dollars in casino revenues. The percentage of gambling versus side attractions will influence the profit margins, depending on how much focus is placed on each area. The hotel chain can also strive to increase its overall occupancy rate of seventy percent while continuing to set the industry benchmark (Hilton Case Study). In researching how to improve marketing to attract customers, we must first look at where the Hilton stands today. Second, we must analyze what has worked in the past and see if we can apply past practices into the current market. Third, we shall look at how the competitors are more effective by looking at their gaming plans, marketing structure, customer’s spending habits and dollar/cost value based on guest surveys. Hilton entered the gaming market as an attempt to compete with the other big hotels for the gambling dollar. Investments in renovation and expansion caused Hilton to over- extend. Although the investments were needed to compete, the hotel chain felt it needed to lure big money to its locations, and extend credit more than usual. Heavy hitters receive this same courtesy from other hotels, but this puts a strain on the operating cash flow, as chasing bad credit costs money, and slows up cash flow. Gaming revenue was already down, which was attributable in part to renovation and more so to extended credit that had been difficult to reclaim. In today’s market, families are a prime target. Big beautiful hotels are  catering to families all along the Las Vegas strip. Gambling is still the main focus, but today’s gambler is more inclined to visit the â€Å"Casino Resort†, a place that the kids can stay, have a good time and be entertained. Meanwhile, the parents can drop next months mortgage money at the casino. This type of package appeals to the whole family. As far as quality of service, no one does it better than Hilton, because they create an environment that the customer, family or non-family guests will remember and to which they will want to return. The focus on entertainment is important, but Las Vegas is still â€Å"sin-city†. Three point six billion dollars have been spent in packaging entertainment; focus on the family is important, but a balance of adult-only and child-friendly entertainment is required. Gambling is the central purpose for casinos to exist. Continue to market the standard tables of chance, card tables, slot machines, and lavish floor shows, with headliners people recognize, and the main source of revenue will continue to flow. Have shopping, kids activities, and outdoor recreation available, but not as the focus of why travelers should visit, and that will provide entertainment for the rest of the family. Hilton should pull back the extended credit. By doing so, they may lose a few customers, but the resulting loss of risk will increase bottom-line profit. By changing the focus to families, the customers that discontinue patronizing the hotel for credit line reasons are not the desired target anymore. The chain should pay more attention to the middle-market segment, conventions, and sporting events such as youth tournaments and professional venues. In volume, the more people that move through the doors, the more money there is to be made. With this said, room rates must stay within the $100.00 a night rate with weekend promotions of Thursday through Sunday at a lower rate; perhaps 25% to 35% lower. This would be a novel concept, as the industry generally promotes lower room rates Monday through Thursday. The food and beverage structure should remain the same, as it has proven to be more than adequate and very popular. The increase in competition can be dealt with through better values in room rates, children’s activities, slot machines that pay off more frequently and the most important aspect of the business, service. Hilton could offer something that the other hotels do not: ensuring the employee responses to each customer’s needs are met with enthusiasm and expedience. People are paying for an experience along with the opportunity to break the house; give them what they are looking for. Word of mouth is far more powerful than any media advertisement. Hilton has entered the gaming industry. Gaming must focus on gambling and hotel must focus on hotel amenities and service. It would be the hotel’s responsibility to insure the entertainment, promotions and accommodations were settled; leaving the gaming operations to generate gaming interest. Advertising would be a joint effort, but casino operations would focus on the age 21 and older market. The two operations would report to the Chief Executive Officer and his staffs to ensure all objectives are met. It would be the CEO and staff’s responsibility to ensure both lines were working hand-in-hand, while maintaining separate operations. The purpose for this suggestion is to keep revenues separate so one function does not bear the full brunt of any losses that may occur. The casino will always show a bigger profit than the hotel, but by having separate bottom lines, profit and losses are easier to control. The hotel/casino is one business, but must have two different mindsets as the casino and hotel does, and will operate much differently. Situational AnalysisThe U.S. based Hilton Hotels Corporation is a multi-billion dollar corporation and a leading brand in the hotel and gaming industry. Conrad Hilton started the company in 1919 with his first hotel purchase. Since then the company has grown to over 2,000 hotels globally, with several brand name acquisitions, including Bally’s, Hampton Inn, Doubletree Suites and Homewood Inn. Besides standard hotel service, the Hilton Corporation runs casinos, vacation ownership businesses and luxury hotels, like the Conrad Line. The Hilton Hotels Corporation earned in excess  of $3.8 billion in fiscal year 2003 (Datamonitor, p. 4). External FactorsAccording to the Datamonitor report, the Marriott and Hyatt Corporations are the Hilton Hotel Corporations biggest competitors. Las Vegas is a gaming town, thus every hotel is expected to have gambling casinos within. The Las Vegas Hilton website shows that they also provide live entertainment, including comics and headline musical acts, as well as hosting a million-dollar Blackjack tournament. These factors, along with the attractive room packages and gambling activities, should be enough to maintain the occupancy rate and keep the gambling action constant. According to its website, the Las Vegas Marriott is a hotel with 278 rooms. The Hyatt franchise is located 17 miles away from the Las Vegas strip on Lake Las Vegas, but is a resort, casino and spa. While the Hyatt is a luxury hotel chain, the Marriott is a corporation more in line with Hilton. The Marriott made over $9 billion in fiscal year 2003; more than three times the Hilton Hotel Corporation (Marriott Datamonitor report). To contend with a company of this magnitude is not an easy job for any of their competitors. Hilton Hotels Corporation is an enormous company as mentioned above; so sizable that they had to split the corporation into six main divisions, totaling approximately 100,000 employees worldwide. Hilton Hotels Corporation has been very successful since they were established in 1946. Their diversification profile is significant and ambitious; no matter where you go, there are Hilton hotels there. In addition, Hilton Corporation has been leading in customer service and efficient staffing by utilizing a call center to help them maintain their reputation for hospitality. Hilton Reservations Worldwide handles reservations and information requests for thousands of hotel properties, under their various brands, positioning the company on the top of: †¢ Accurate intraday forecasts†¢ Reduced management costs†¢ Excellent customer service †¢ An edge over the competitionA company’s strength does not solely lie in the size of the company but in the management of the company, the employees and their commitment to their customers. Hilton’s management promoted brand relevancy within minority markets. Their sales team strategic initiatives are to target the multicultural market. In relation to their employees, Hilton’s are some of the finest. They are trained to do their jobs with care and make sure the customers are comfortable and happy. The customer personal profile allows the Hilton employees to treat each customer as a unique and special individual. WeaknessEvery company has weaknesses; Hilton Hotels weakness lied in its inability to recover quickly from the attacks on America in 2001. Although Hilton Hotels is a large company in many locations across the country, they had to reduce their manpower due to the decline in business. Matthew J. Hart (president and CEO) said; â€Å"we have had a lot of job losses – about 2,500 full-time equivalent jobs out of a worldwide workforce of 100,000. But we have no plans for any more, unless business gets worse† (Finch, 2001, p.1). The September 11th attacks left the whole nation in awe, in grief, and for many New Yorkers, jobless. The attacks left the airline and hotel industry to recover from lost sales. Another weakness the hotel industry is facing is the evident decline in supply. The below chart shows how the demand to occupy the Hilton hotels has been a declining behavior during the last years:A closer examination of the demand cycle for economy hotels during the past several years reveals a pattern that is not consistent with other hotels. The rate of demand growth in this segment began declining during mid-2000, about nine months before a similar effect was felt industry-wide. In addition, as the industry’s demand recovery has begun to accelerate the rate of demand growth, the economy segment has plateaud. Of even more concern is that the number of rooms currently being purchased in this segment is still declining when compared to previous-years levels. (Look Smart Articles, 2004, p.1)OpportunitiesAs mentioned earlier, Hilton Hotels Corporation is known worldwide; with this notoriety their reputation will carry them to expand their hotel empire even further. Their opportunity lies in the growing international market. The company is expecting 4-5% fee growth in 2004 within; new management contracts in Austin, Houston, Omaha and Conrad Miami. The company market overview reveals that recent trends in major markets are:†¢ Strong in New York, D.C., Hawaii†¢ Stable in New Orleans, Boston†¢ Weak in San Francisco, ChicagoThere will always be a demand for hotels and resorts. Currently, Hilton Hotels are working on more room availability; 80% of rooms have been renovated within last five years, and they are expanding into new markets. They also have â€Å"Best Rates. Guaranteed†, Internet easy access with a success rate of utilization from the customers:†¢ 13% of all reservations†¢ 85% through proprietary websites†¢ Self-service kiosksThis kind of service assists in making the experience convenient for the customer. Along with the convenience, Hilton Corporation and their six divisions take pride in making ever y building feel like home and ensuring the customer is satisfied and pleased with their accommodations (Hilton Hotels Corporation, 2003, s.3-5). ThreatsA few of the threats for The Hilton are competition, and a declining economy. The competition for The Hilton is not only other hotel companies, but restaurants and other service centers as well. Marriott is the main competitor of The Hilton amongst other hospitality companies. Because Hilton is so grand and reputable, they have more room for error, which also makes them vulnerable. As time passes, the Hilton Hotels continue to strive for excellence and perfection. They make each new hotel or resort better than the last. Because of the continuous growth of this company, it has dealt  with it’s competition head on (Nairn, 2001, p.3). The second threat is the economic decline of this century. Since the September 11th attacks in New York City, the American economy has been declining in all service industry areas. There was an ominous fear of flying and for quite some time, many people chose not to travel for vacations or long-distance business trips. This reaction to the events of 2001 hurt the hospitality industry, and made difficult rebuilding what they lost in revenue. Fortunately, this trend has started to change and the industry will soon recover from their losses. This is an area that still needs close monitoring from the executives of the corporation. References Datamonitor Hilton Hotels Company Overview August 2004. Datamonitor Marriott International Inc. Overview August 2004. Finch, J. (2001, November 16). Hilton reports impact of September 11. Retrieved October 26, 2004, http://www.union-network.org/unitourism.nsf/2c89b80c011f2519c1256b06002163c2?OpenDocumentHotels Hilton Hotels Corporation. (1998, Fall 1998). Corporate History. Retrieved October 26, 2004, Http://hiltonworldwide.hilton.com/en/ww/company-_info/corporate_history.jhtml;jsessionid=FGTDSXUCGXCGSCSGBIX222QKIYFCXUUCHilton Case Study. https://mycampus.phoenix.edu/secure/resource/resource.asp Retrieved October 23, 2004. Hilton Hotels Corporation (2003, July). Hilton: Great Brands and a Balanced Business Model (presentation). Retrieved October 26, 2004, http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/NYS/HLT/Hilton%20Presentation%20February%202004/tsld002.htmhttp://www.lakelasvegas.com/http://www.lv-hilton.com/http://www.vacationclub.com/en-us/vc/about/marriottworld/lasvegas.asp?cookies=trueLook Smart Articles (2004, January 14). Economy segment lags industry in key performance measures – Trends & Stats. Retrieved October 26, 2004,

Rowe vs Wade

Roe vs. Wade: â€Å"The Court today is correct in holding that the right asserted by Jane Roe is embraced within the personal liberty protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It is evident that the Texas abortion statute infringes that right directly. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a more complete abridgment of a constitutional freedom than that worked by the inflexible criminal statute now in force in Texas. The question then becomes whether the state interests advanced to justify this abridgment can survive the ‘particularly careful scrutiny' that the Fourteenth Amendment here requires.The asserted state interests are protection of the health and safety of the pregnant woman, and protection of the potential future human life within her. But such legislation is not before us, and I think the Court today has thoroughly demonstrated that these state interests cannot constitutionally support the broad abridgment of personal liberty worked by the exist ing Texas law. Accordingly, I join the Court's opinion holding that that law is invalid under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment† (Craig and O'Brien 17).On January 22nd, 1973 Justice Harry Blackmun gave the decision of the Supreme Court in regards to the Roe vs. Wade case. A single pregnant woman, â€Å"Jane Roe,† had filed a class action lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of the Texas criminal laws regarding abortion, which stated having or attempting an abortion except on medical advice for the reason of saving the mother's life. Norma McCorvey, the plaintiff's legal name, was young and recently divorced at the time, searching for a way to resolve her unplanned pregnancy. â€Å"No legitimate doctor in Texas would touch me,† stated McCorvey. There I was – pregnant, unmarried, unemployed, alone and stuck† (Craig and O'Brien 5). The plaintiff's argument was that prohibiting abortion at any time before the actual birth of the chi ld violated a woman's constitutional right to privacy. The Supreme Court eventually agreed with Mrs. McCorvey, finding it justifiable that abortion under the fourteenth amendment was legal. A person's right to privacy had to now extend to the extent of choosing to have an abortion. Although the Court did not discuss the issue of when life actually begins, abortion became legal under this landmark Supreme Court decision.The debate over whether abortion should be legal had taken place in America for several decades, and the final decision rendered by Roe vs. Wade resonated through all of America, influencing society even to this date. Until inside the last half of the nineteenth century, when it was criminalized on a state by state basis across America, abortion was legal before approximately the fourth month of pregnancy. In early colonial medical guides there were recipes for instigating abortions with plants and herbs that could be grown in one's garden or easily procured in the wo ods.By the middle of the eighteenth century, commercial items were widely available that served the same purpose. Unfortunately, these drugs happened to be often fatal. The first statutes regulating acquiring an abortion, passed in the 1820s and 1830s, were actually laws for poison control: selling of commercial abortion agents was outlawed, but abortion itself was not. Despite these newly appointed laws, the business of abortion was booming by the 1840's, this included the sale of illegal drugs, which were advertised very widely in the popular press.However, this trend would change. Following the 1840's, abortion was under attack, and a string of anti-abortion laws would be put in place until the twentieth century. The pushing force behind this criminalization of abortion was doctors and the American Medical Association. The AMA was founded in 1847, and the elimination of abortion was one of its top priorities. To the growing movement, â€Å"abortion was both an immoral act and a medically dangerous one, given the incompetence of many of the practitioners then† (Joffe 28). However, the opposition went beyond these factors.To many people during the later years of the nineteenth century, abortion represented a threat to the traditional role of a woman in society and the authority of males. Abortion was a symbol of unrestrained female sexuality, expressing self-centered and self-indulgent qualities. The AMA's Committee on Criminal Abortion portrayed this view blatantly in 1871. â€Å"She yields to the pleasures – but shrinks from the pains and responsibilities of maternity; and, destitute of all delicacy and refinement, resigns herself, body and soul, into the hands of unscrupulous and wicked men† (Joffe 9). As the twentieth century arrived, over forty states had completely outlawed abortion unless the mother's life was in direct danger, and many others had put strict regulations in place. However in spite of these emerging laws, people stil l acquired abortions illegally for decades until the Roe vs. Wade decision. Frederick Taussig performed a study in 1936 which showed an estimated half million illegal abortions. In 1953, ninety percent of all premarital pregnancies ended in illegal abortions, and twenty percent of married couples had abortions performed.Illegal abortions climbed in numbers to over a million a year until Roe vs. Wade. Although the law dictated the morality of having an abortion, it was still a considerable part of society. The Roe vs. Wade decision was first argued in December 1971, after being before the Supreme Court for over a year. Although this decision would be later analyzed and debated over, little attention was brought up in regard to the case at the time. Chief Justice Burger opened the Court's oral arguments, and each was given only thirty minutes to present their case and answer questions.Sarah Weddington, who was the main lawyer defending Norma McCorvey argued that abortion needed to be legalized farther than the case in which a woman's life is in danger. The physiological and psychological factors could also warrant an abortion. However, seeing as how the Supreme Court has no jurisdiction over public policies, Weddington decided to argue that current abortion laws were in violation of the fourteenth amendment. The fourteenth amendment guarantees the right to liberty without due process of law, and the decision made this right extend to a woman's right to choose to be pregnant.During her closing argument, Weddington stated if â€Å"liberty is meaningful†¦ that liberty to these women would mean liberty from being forced to continue the unwanted pregnancy† (Craig and O'Brien 17). Jay Floyd, the assistant attorney general of Texas, then presented his case arguing against the legalization of abortion. Weddington had argued that many women had no other choice but to have an abortion because of their social and economic status. However, Floyd contended that d espite external factors, every person has free autonomy. Now I think she makes her choice prior to the time she becomes pregnant. That is the time of her choice. It's like, more or less, the first three or four years of our life we don't remember anything. But once a child is born, a woman no longer has a choice, and I think pregnancy then determines that choice† (Craig and O'Brien 17). Thus, Floyd argued, the fourteenth amendment had not been violated since pregnancy was a result of free will, and liberty was not denied. If pregnancy was a conscious choice on the woman's part, then abortion was not warranted.Another crucial chapter of the Roe vs. Wade trial was the debate of when a fetus is given constitutional rights. In response to Texas' harsh abortion restrictions, Floyd explained that Texas â€Å"recognized the humanness of the embryo, or the fetus† and had†a compelling interest because of the protection of fetal life† (Craig and O'Brien 17). However, there were many flaws with this statement in the court. First, the topic at hand was not the constitutional rights of embryos, but whether abortion was in violation of a person's right to liberty.Second, there had been no state law or court decision which had equated abortion with murder. Thus, Floyd's argument amounted to nothing more than personal opinion, with no relativity to the case. The Court needed to ensure the constitutional rights of the woman before protecting the â€Å"rights† of the unborn fetus. The fourteenth amendment as it is stated applies only â€Å"to all persons born or naturalized in the United States,† and if the Court granted the fourteenth amendment to unborn children, it would be an extreme case of judicial activism (Craig and O'Brien 20).After two years of listening to both sides, the Supreme Court finally came to a decision. The right to privacy and liberty was broad enough to include a woman's choice for abortion. The fourteenth amendment granted personal liberty, which includes a woman's body and unborn fetus. Although the Court determined the legality of abortion, they left the responsibility of how to implement it to the states themselves. Like Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka, a general decision on constitutionality needed to be left to local governments to be implemented. Where certain ‘fundamental rights' are involved, the Court has held that regulation limiting these rights may be justified only by a ‘compelling state interest,' and that legislative enactments must be narrowly drawn to express only the legitimate state interests at stake† (Craig and O'Brien 27). Although the court did not provide any precise methods of how to implement, it did set vague guidelines regarding the developmental stage of the fetus.A mother had the choice to abort the pregnancy in the first trimester, but limitations were put in place on abortion where it is allowed in the second and third trimesters if the right to liberty and privacy of the mother was still preserved. The immediate reactions to the Roe vs. Wade decision were heated and extreme, as abortion is still an extremely controversial topic. The president of Planned Parenthood hailed the decision as â€Å"a wise and courageous stroke for the right of privacy, and for the protection of a woman's physical and emotional health† (Craig and O'Brien 32).However, there were just as many people in agreement with the decision as its opposition. Cardinal Terence Cooke came after the Justices, claiming that â€Å"whatever their legal rationale, seven men have made a tragic utilitarian judgment regarding who shall live and who shall die† (Craig and O'Brien 32). Roe vs. Wade launched the abortion issue to the national level, making it a source of political and social arguments in the years to follow. On the tenth anniversary of the decision, The Washington Post discussed its effects on society. â€Å"[Roe vs.Wade] has dr astically changed the Court's image, fostered wholesale attack on ‘judicial activism' and mobilized thousands of supporters and opponents of legalized abortion in a debate that has reshaped the political terrain in many states and, at times, has virtually halted the work of Congress. Few court decisions have had a more immediate impact on such a personal aspect of American life† (Craig and O'Brien 35). The Roe vs. Wade decision has affected all parts of society, from the role of the Supreme Court to the level of humanness of an unborn fetus.Many scholars regard this case as the â€Å"Dred Scott† of the twentieth century. The decision ignited a national debate on judicial activism, and the part the Supreme Court plays on public policy. No other case similar to Roe vs. Wade has had such an extreme impact on public law. Furthermore, the case has drawn an imaginary line, diving the whole country into the pro-life or pro-choice category. Almost immediately following th e decision, a great deal of pro-life and pro-choice groups were created, and abortion has remained a prominent political, social, and moral issue.No other subject has resonated importance in American politics. Finally, the Roe vs. Wade outcome is considered a symbol of the changing society during the 1970's. In the past, abortion was highly restricted and frowned upon, mimicking the conservative society. However, as the 1970's marked a rise in liberalism and the need for individual freedoms, the Roe vs. Wade decision to make abortion legal mirrored this willingness to embrace a person's autonomy. Roe vs. Wade marked an unforgettable change in government, politics, and society.Works Cited Craig, Barbara Hinkson and David M. O'Brien. Abortion and American Politics. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, 1993. Hickok, Eugene W. Justice vs. Law: Courts and Politics in American Society. New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1993. Joffe, Carole. Doctors of Conscience: The Struggle to Pr ovide Abortion Before and After Roe v. Wade. Boston: Beacon Press, 1995. Olasky, Marvin. Abortion Rites: A Social History of Abortion in America. Washington DC: Regnery Publishing, 1992. Rubin, Eva R. Abortion, Politics, and the Courts: Roe v. Wade and its Aftermath. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987.

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